Tổng hợp ngữ pháp tiếng anh căn bản và nâng cao

Vai trò của việc học ngữ pháp tiếng anh

Kể từ khi tiếng Anh được chính thức công nhận là một môn học bắt buộc tại các cấp học ở Việt Nam, ngữ pháp tiếng Anh luôn được nhìn nhận là yếu tố quan trọng nhất trong giáo án của các giáo viên. Đồng thời, rất nhiều học viên cũng chú trọng đến yếu tố này. Tuy nhiên, phải chăng nó xứng đáng được coi là yếu tố quan trọng bậc nhất của việc học tiếng?

Chúng ta cần xác định mục tiêu của việc học tiếng anh là gì. Đó là có thể SỬ DỤNG được ngôn ngữ đó. Và phương thức sử dụng phổ biến nhất là gì? Chính là Giao tiếp. Và trong giao tiếp, người sử dụng được phép sai ngữ pháp ở mức độ 20-25%. Qua đó, chúng ta có thể thấy ngữ pháp không phải là yếu tố tiên quyết và quan trọng nhất trong việc hình thành khả năng ngoại ngữ ở học viên. Nói cách khác, ngữ pháp giống như khung xương của một cơ thể sống, giúp cho chúng ta nằm trong một khuôn khổ chính xác nhất định. Trên thực tế, ngữ pháp tiếng Anh chủ yếu chỉ giới hạn trong các chủ điểm sau:

• Cấu trúc mệnh đề
• Dạng từ
• Thì
• Câu bị động
• So sánh
• Câu điều kiện
• Cấu trúc song hành
• Số ít/số nhiều
• Trật tự từ

Trọn bộ ngữ pháp tiếng anh căn bản và nâng cao

Nhằm giúp các bạn độc giả của Kênh Tuyển Sinh có định hướng rõ ràng khi học ngữ pháp tiếng anh cũng như những bạn đang có nhu cầu muốn ôn tập các kiến thức về ngữ pháp, kenhtuyensinh.vn tổng hợp những chủ đề quan trọng trong khi học ngữ pháp. Với bài viết này, chúng tôi hy vọng bạn sẽ có thêm nguồn tài liệu để củng cố kiến thức cũng như có thêm niềm đam mê trong việc học tiếng anh.

Tổng hợp kiến thức về ngữ pháp tiếng anh

Mạo từ: Mạo từ là từ dùng trước danh từ và cho biết danh từ ấy đề cập đến một đối tượng xác định hay không xác định. Tìm hiểu cách dùng & bài tập về mạo từ trong tiếng anh	Tính từ: Tính từ là từ dùng đẻ phẩm định cho danh từ bằng cách miêu tả các dặc tính của sự vật mà danh từ đó đại diện. So sánh tính từ: Hình thức so sánh bằng nhau được thành lập bằng cách thêm "as" vào trước và sau tính từ	Trạng từ trong tiếng anh (phó từ) - Adverbs:Trạng từ dùng để tính chất/phụ nghĩa cho một từ loại khác trừ danh từ và đại danh từ.
Phân động từ ( Phân từ) - Participles: Phân động từ là từ do động từ tạo ra và nó có đặc tính như một tính từ.	Bảng động từ bất quy tắc - Irregular vebs: Bảng Động từ bất quy tắc	Rút gọn - Astractions: Trong các hội thoại thường ngày, các trợ động từ thường được tỉnh lược. Nhưng trong văn viết, việc dung tỉnh lược nên được hạn chế.
Liên từ: Liên từ là từ dùng để nối các từ loại, cụm từ hay mệnh đề.	Thán từ - Interjections: Thán từ là một âm thanh phát ra hay tiếng kêu xen vào một câu để biểu lộ một cảm xúc động hay một biểu lộ mạnh mẽ nào đó...	Mệnh đề: Mệnh đề là một nhóm từ có chứa một động từ đã chia và chủ ngữ của nó.
Các thì trong tiếng Anh: Cách dùng các thời/thì như hiện tại thường (present simple), quá khứ thường (simple past), tương lai (future), hiện tại hoàn thành (present perfect), quá khứ hoàn thành (past perfect) etc..	Câu điều kiện(Conditionals): Câu điều kiện gồm có hai phần: Một phần nêu lên điều kiện và một phần còn lại nêu lên kết quả hay được gọi là mệnh đề chỉ điều kiện và mệnh đề chỉ kết quả.hoc tieng anh online	Đại danh từ(Pronouns): Đại danh từ (Pronouns) là từ dùng để thay thế cho danh từ.
Động từ (Verbs): Động từ là dùng diễn tả một hành động, vận động, hoạt động của một người, một vật nào đó.	Câu chủ động & Câu bị động: Gồm: Chủ động (Active Voice) và Bị động (Passive Voice).	Câu (Sentences): Câu là một nhóm từ tạo thành nghĩa đầy đủ, và thường được kết thúc bởi dấu chấm (.)(hoặc chấm than (!), hai chấm (:), hỏi chấm (?) ...).
Cụm từ (Phrases): Cụm từ (phrase) là một nhóm từ kết hợp với nhau tạo thành nghĩa nhưng không đầy đủ. cụm từ được phân thành mấy loại sau đây: cụm danh từ, cụm danh động từ, cụm động từ nguyên mẫu, cụm giới từ, cụm phân từ, cụm tính từ	Câu bị động (Passive Voices): Bị (Thụ) động cách là cách đặt câu trong đó chủ ngữ đứng vai bị động.	Câu trực tiếp - Câu gián tiếp (Dicrect and Indirect Speeches): Trong lời nói trực tiếp, chúng ta ghi lại chính xác những từ, ngữ của người nói dùng.
Giống (Gender): Là hình thức biến thể của danh từ để chỉ "tính"- hay phân biệt giống.	So sánh trong tiếng anh: Có 3 cấp so sánh: So sánh bằng, so sánh hơn, so sánh cực cấp	Phó từ (Trạng từ - Adverbs): Tổng quan về phó từ (Trạng từ - abverbs)
Cấu trúc đảo ngữ trong tiếng anh (Inversions): Thông thường, một câu kể (câu trần thuật) bao giờ cũng bắt đầu bằng chủ ngữ và tiếp theo sau là một động từ. Tuy nhiên, trật tự của câu như trên có thể bị thay đổi khi người nói muốn nhấn mạnh. Lúc đó xuất hiện hiện tượng "Đảo ngữ"	Mạo từ xác định (Definite Article): Hình thức của Mạo từ xác định (Definite Article) - THE	Mạo từ bất định A/An: Cách dùng mạo từ bất định A/An
Danh từ (nouns): Tiếng Anh có 4 loại danh từ: Danh từ chung(Common nouns), Danh từ riêng (Proper nouns), Danh từ trừu tượng (Abstract nouns), Danh từ tập hợp(Collective nouns)	Giống của danh từ (Gender of nouns): Các giống của danh từ: Giống đực, giống cái, trung tính	Số nhiều của danh từ: Chỉ riêng danh từ đếm được mới có số nhiều.
Số nhiều của danh từ kép: Cấu tạo của danh từ kép	Danh từ đếm được và Danh từ không đếm được: Đặc điểm của danh từ đếm được & danh từ không đếm được	Sở hữu cách: 's dùng cho danh từ số ít, danh từ số nhiều không tận cùng bằng 's, từ sau cùng trong danh từ kép, hoặc sau từ viết tắt
Phó từ dưới hình thức so sánh và cực cấp: So sánh phó từ	Khi nào dùng sở hũu cách? Sở hữu cách (possessive case) chủ yếu dùng cho người, quốc gia hoặc động vật.	Khi nào dùng Of + danh từ để diễn đạt sự sở hữu? Khi có một cụm từ (phrase) hoặc mệnh đề (clause) theo sau "chủ sở hữu".
Tính từ chỉ phẩm chất: Tổng quan về Tính từ chỉ phẩm chất	Tính từ sở hữu/Đại từ sở hữu: Tính từ sở hữu (My,Your,His,Her,Its,Our,Their) Đại từ sở hữu (Mine, Yours, His, Hers, Its, Ours, Theirs)	Đại từ phản thân: Myself, Yourself, Himself, Herself, Itself, Ourselves, Yourselves, Themselves
Tính từ bất định - Đại từ bất định: One, many, much, several etc.	Đại từ và tính từ nghi vấn: Who (đại từ), Whom (đại từ), What (đại từ và tính từ), Which (đại từ và tính từ), Whose (đại từ và tính từ)	Đại từ nhân xưng: Cách dùng Đại từ nhân xưng I/You/He/She/It/We/They
Đại từ và tính từ chỉ định: Tính từ chỉ định (demonstrative adjectives), Đại từ chỉ định (demonstrative pronouns)	Đại từ quan hệ: Who, Whom, Which, When, Where, That, Whose, Of which, Why	Nói thêm về What và Which: What cũng có nghĩa là "Những điều mà/Những gì mà". Which cũng có nghĩa là "Điều đó".
Giới từ: Giới từ là một từ (At, Between, In, On, Under...) hoặc nhóm từ (Apart from, In front of, Instead of, On account of...) đứng trước danh từ hoặc đại từ để chỉ vị trí, thời gian, cách thức...	Thì hiện tại (Present): Hiện tại đơn giản (Simple Present, Hiện tại tiếp diễn (Present Continuous), Hiện tại hoàn thành (Present Perfect), Hiện tại hoàn thành tiếp diễn (Present Perfect Continuous)	Thì quá khứ (Past): Quá khứ đơn giản (Simple Past), Quá khứ tiếp diễn (Past Continuous), Quá khứ hoàn thành (Past Perfect), Quá khứ hoàn thành tiếp diễn (Past Perfect Continuous)
Thì tương lai (Future): Tương lai đơn giản (Simple Future), Tương lai tiếp diễn (Future Continuous), Tương lai hoàn thành (Future Perfect), Tương lai hoàn thành tiếp diễn (Future Perfect Continuous)	Điều kiện cách (Conditional): Hiện tại điều kiện cách (Present Conditional), Quá khứ điều kiện cách (Perfect Conditional), Câu điều kiện (Conditional Sentences)	Mệnh lệnh cách (Imperative): Mệnh lệnh cách thể hiện một lời khuyên, một lời yêu cầu hoặc một mệnh lệnh.
Động từ khiếm khuyết (Modal Auxiliaries): Can &Could , May &Might , Must , Ought ,Shall &Should , Will &Would , Need , Dare , Used	Giả định cách (Subjunctive):  Thể hiện ước muốn hoặc hy vọng.	Hoà hợp các thì (Sequence of tenses): Thì của động từ của mệnh đề phụ tùy thuộc Thì của động từ của mệnh đề chính.
Câu hỏi đuôi: Tag questions	Động từ nguyên mẫu (Infinitive): Nguyên mẫu đầy đủ = To + động từ.	Nguyên mẫu không có To: Động từ nguyên mẫu không có To sau: Do & Do not , Did & Did not etc.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 16: THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS

Reading

The ASEAN

Read the passage and do the task that follows/do the tasks that follow

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok by the five original Member Countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 8 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Lao PRD and Myanmar on 23 July 1997 and Cambodia on 30 April 1999.

As of 2006, the ASEAN region has a population of about 560 million (one of every ten persons in the world today is a Southeast Asian), a total area of 4.5 million square kilometers, a combined gross domestic product of almost US$ 1,100 billion, and a total trade of about US$ 1,400 billion.

The ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the Association are to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nation Charter.

The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by the ASEAN Leaders on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN, agreed on a shared vision of ASEAN as a concert of Southeast Asian nations, outward looking, living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring societies.

In 2003, the ASEAN Leaders resolved that an ASEAN Community shall be established comprising three pillars, namely, ASEAN Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 15: WOMEN IN SOCIETY

Reading

Canadian Women

Read the passage and do the task that follows

A. In 2000, 60% of Canadian women aged 15 and over were in the Canadian labour force, up to 42% in 1976. Between 1976 and 2000, the number of women in labour force grew from 3.6 million to 7.4 million, an increase of 106%. Over the same period the number of women in labour force grew by only 40%, from 6.2 million to 8.7 million.

B. The largest participation rate increase has been among women with pre-school children. Between 1976 and 1999, the participation rate of women with a youngest child aged 3 to 5 grew from 37% to 66%. The increase was even more dramatic among women with a toddler or infant: the rate for women with a youngest child under 3 more than doubled, from 28% in 1976 to 61% in 1999.

C. Work continuity is important to career development, future employability and current and future earnings, but the majority of women experience significant breaks in employment. Nearly two-thirds of women (62%) who have ever held paid jobs have experienced a work interruption of six months or more. In contrast, only one quarter of their male counterparts (27%) have had a work interruption lasting six months or more. Marriage, maternity leave and care of children account for 62% of women's work interruption.

D. In spite of remarkable growth in their participation rate, women with children are still less likely to be in the labour force than those without. In 1999, 76% of women under age 55 without children under 16 at home were in the labour force. This compares to a participation rate of 69% among women with children under 16.

E. The vast majority of employed women with children work full-time (30 hours or more per week). In 1999, 71% of employed women with at least one child under age 16 at home worked full-time, as did 68% of employed women with one or more children under 3 years of age.

F. A nationally representative employees survey conducted by the Conference Board of Canada in 1999 indicated that the proportion of employees who both care for elderly family members and have children at home is now 15%, as compared to 9.5% a decade ago.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 14: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

Reading

The United Nations

Read the passage and do the task that follows

In one very long sentence, the introduction to the U.N. Charter expresses the ideals and the common aims of all the peoples whose governments joined together to form the U.N.

The name "United Nations" is accredited to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and the first group of representatives of member states met and signed a declaration of common intent on New Year's Day in 1942, completed at Dumbarton Oaks in 1944. These proposals, modified after deliberation at the conference on International Organization in San Fransisco which began in April 1945, were finally agreed on and signed as the U.N. Charter by 50 countries on 26 June 1945. Poland, not represented at the conference, signed the Charter later and was added to the list of original members. It was not until that autumn, however, after the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the U.S.S.R and the U.K. and the U.S. and by a majority of the other participants that the U.N. officially came into existence. The date was 24 October, now universally celebrated as United Nations Day.

The essential functions of the U.N. are to maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations, to cooperate internationally in solving international economic, social, cultural and human problems, promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and to be a centre for co-ordinating the actions of nations in attaining these common ends.

No country takes precedence over another in the U.N. Each member's rights and obligations are the same. All must contribute to the peaceful settlement of international disputes, and members have pledged to refrain from the threat and use of force against other states. Though the U.N. has no right to intervene in any state's internal affairs, it tries to ensure that non-member states act according to its principles of international peace and security. UN members must offer every assistance in an approved U.N. action and in no way assist states which the U.N. is taking preventive or enforcement action.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 13: THE 22TH SEA GAMES

Reading

The Olympic Games

Read the passage and do the task that follows

In ancient Greece athletic festivals were very important and had strong religious associations. The Olympian athletic festival, held every four years in honour of Zeus, eventually lost its local character, became first a national event, and then, after the rules against foreign competitors had been waived, international. No one knows exactly how far back the Olympic Games go, but some official records date from 776 B.C.

The Games took place in August by Mount Olympus. Many thousands of spectators gathered from all parts of Greece, but no married woman was admitted even as a spectator. Slaves, women and dishonoured persons were not allowed to compete. The exact sequence of events were uncertain, but events included boy's gymnastics, horse-racing, field events such as discus and javelin throwing, and the very important foot races. There was also boxing and wrestling and special tests of varied ability such as the pentathlon, the winner of which excelled in running, jumping, discus and javelin throwing and wrestling. The evening of the third day was devoted to sacrificial offerings to the heroes of the day, and the fourth day, that of the full moon, was set aside as a holy day.

On the sixth and last day, all the victors were crowned with holy garlands of wild olive from a sacred wood. So great was the honour that the winner of the foot race gave his name to the year of his victory. Although Olympic winners received no prize money, they were, in fact, richly rewarded by their state authorities. The public honour also made the strict discipline of the ten-month training period worthwhile. In spite of the lengthy training, however runners were known to drop dead from strain at the winning post. How their results compared with modern standards, we unfortunately have no means of telling.

After an uninterrupted history of almost 1,200 years, the Games were abolished in A.D. 394, the Christian era, because of their pagan origin. It was over 1,500 years before there was another such international athletics gathering. The Greek institution was revived in 1896 and the first small meeting took place in Athens. After the 1908 London Olympics, success was re-established and nations sent their best representatives. In times of peace, the Games have taken place ever since at four-yearly intervals. In Munich in 1972, competitors from more than 120 countries were watched by huge crowds.

Nowadays, the Games are held in different countries in turn. The host country provides vast facilities, including a stadium, swimming pools and living accommodation, but competing countries pay their own athletes' expenses. Athletic contests are still the main feature, but now many more sports are represented, women compete, the ancient pentathlon, for example, has been modified into a more comprehensive test, and the marathon races, initiated in 1896, are now a celebrated event.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 12: WATER SPORTS

Reading

Extreme Sports

Fill in the blanks with words from the Reading Quiz

Summer's just around the corner, encouraging some to dust off the tennis racket or rummage round the cupboard for the cricket bat. But for some in Britain traditional outdoor pursuits are just not enough. So how do extreme sports devotees ?

Extreme sports are about , skill and danger. They do not normally involve teams and there are very few rules. People who take part use their skills and experience to control the risks. That control is what makes them sports and not just dangerous behaviour.

Here are just some of the extreme sports which are popular in Britain:

Kitesurfing: a growing band of enthusiasts have been discovering the thrilling combination of , board and waves. These kites can be up to 17 metres long. Catch a gust and you're motoring - up, down and across the . British Ladies kitesurfing champion Jo Wilson says: "It's always . It's unpredictable. You could jump 5ft or 35ft. You never know if you're going to go up in the air, and your heart is just going boom, boom, boom all the time."

Coasteering: this is exploring the  without worrying about a coastal path or finding a rocky cliffy cove blocking your route. You climb, dive, swim and clamber from A to B. There are about 15 operators in the UK offering coasteering.

Sky diving: traditional parachuting just doesn't sound risky enough, does it? So now skydiving is the name for jumping from a plane and listening to your heart  as you hurtle towards earth before you open your parachute at the last moment. Once you've got a few jumps under your parachute you can  some extra risks, for example try a 'hook turn'. Dean Dunbar is a participant of extremedreams.com and his first sky dive was in 1998. Since then he's been hooked on the buzz of the extreme, saying: "Every so often I have to go out and do something scary."

Mountain biking: it's been around so long that bikers are no longer satisfied with just going up and down a mountain. Nowadays thrill seeking mountain bikers want a big slope to go down very, very fast. "It's pure mad, downhill," according to Dean Dunbar. "People go to old ski resorts, take the chair lift to the top then  - amazingly not killing themselves."

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 11: BOOKS

Reading

Restaurant Guide Books

Read the passage and do the task that follows/do the tasks that follow

The annual flood of restaurant guides has once more hit the shops, covering a thousand good - and not so good - places to eat out. Alexander Hunt tries them out.

A. The Good Food Guide

The Good Food Guide, for years the trusted book for food lovers, covers the whole of Britain's restaurant scene, with over 1300 reviews. This year's edition even has full colour maps, making it easier than usual to read. Readers have access to a 24-hour up-date information service, giving details of chef changes, closures and restaurant sales - quite important when you consider how changeable the eating out industry has become, particularly since entries were written several months ago. The new service, therefore, could save you some nasty surprises. Restaurants are graded 1 to 5 on the basis of their cooking.

In his introduction, the Editor, Jim Ainsworth, gives an update on the whole eating out scene, while Tim Lang, Professor of Food Policy at Thames Valley University, look warily at the dangers that may lie ahead. The Guide, as usual, is not short on people who have points to make, like Simon Hopkinson, restaurant owner and food writer, who considers what makes a top chef good. But, as always, it's the reports from the public in the field that make this possibly the most readable food guide of all.

B. The Time Out Guide

Londoners may turn to The Time Out Guide. Over a hundred independent reviews of bars and restaurants in the city are listed in this year's issue - all visited anonymously by the magazine's own critics. The guide also has a Fax-A-Menu service - readers get a sample menu faxed to them from the top eating spots. The wine writer, Susy Atkins, knocks firmly on the head any preconceived ideas that matching wines with food has strict rules and Caroline Stacey reports on the dramatic changes that have taken place on the food front in Britain in the past twelve months.

C. Harden's Restaurants

A guide with a somewhat different approach in Harden's Restaurants. Brothers Richard and Peter Harden make this their fifth edition. It originated as an idea conceived during visits to the USA and the guide's based on detailed surveys of the views of frequent restaurant-goers. Using a cross-section of some 750 people who average 3.6 meals out a week, it provides an assessment covering some 125,000 meals consumed in the course of the year.

The brothers had a spell in investment banking prior to becoming publishers of the guide, and this results in a lot of marketing jargon, as well as graphs on the areas that really irritate restaurant-goers, like smoking, the sheer pain of making a booking, noisy settings, overcharging and overcrowding - all the things that go to making a good night bad. There's no holding back on frank comments, either, even for the famed establishments, some of which come in for very harsh remarks. This guide, while lesser known than some of the others, is popular in major bookshops as well as being used by a lot of businesses.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 10: ENDANGERED SPECIES

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Koalas try suburban jungle

Fill in each gap with one word from the table below

monitor lizards	so far this year	reptile rescue expert
early last century	in 1997	eucalyptus leaves
arms sliced off	destroying trees	more vegetation

In search of the perfect suburban lifestyle as well as plenty of , koalas are deserting woodlands for backyards, bathrooms and cars in Adelaide.

Local conservationists have rescued 105 koalas from the suburban jungle  compared with just 20 sightings of the bear-like marsupial in the city six years ago.

Cleland Wildlife Park's operations manager, Gary Fitzpatrick, said Australia's furry grey icon, a protected species and a rare sight in the wild, had flourished in the Adelaide Hills area since its introduction .

"With high numbers of koalas, competition for territory is increasing and male koalas are moving towards urban areas," he told the Adelaide Advertiser. "There is also much  in the metropolitan area now, which is attracting them."

But life in the suburbs is not all snoozing on garden gum trees. Instead of contending with bushfires, dingoes, pythons and the suburban koala must keep a beady eye out for dogs, roads and railways.

"There was one koala found on the South Eastern freeway - they just seem to skip across there without any fear," Mr Fitzpatrick said. But he also reported another case of a koala discovered dead on a railway line with its .

The cleaning of native woodland has removed more than 80% of the koala's natural habitat, but in some areas where they were introduced to help preserve the species they have swiftly reached plague proportions,  with their voracious appetite for eucalyptus leaves.

Hundred of koalas were airlifted off Kangaroo island in southern Australia  to save rare trees, birds and wildlife in the national park.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 9: DESERTS

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Sahara Desert

Read the passage and do the task that follows

The Sahara Desert is located in the northern portion of Africa and covers over 9,000,000 sq km or roughly 10% of the continent. It is bounded in the east by the Red Sea and it stretches west to the Atlantic Ocean. To the north, the Sahara Desert's northern boundary is the Mediterranean Sea, while in the south it ends at the Sahel, an area where the desert landscape transforms into a semi-arid tropical savanna. Since the Sahara Desert makes up nearly 10% of the African continent, the Sahara is often cited as the world's largest desert. This is not entirely true, however, as it is only the world's largest hot desert.

Most of the water found in the Sahara today is in the form of seasonal or intermittent streams. The only permanent river in the desert is the Nile River that flows from Central Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. Other water in the Sahara is found in underground aquifers and in areas where this water reaches the surface, there are oases and sometimes small towns or settlements like the Bahariya Oasis in Egypt and Ghardaïa in Algeria.

In addition to being extremely dry, the Sahara is also one of the hottest regions in the world. The average annual temperature for the desert is 30°C but during the hottest months temperatures can exceed 50°C, with the highest temperature ever recorded at 58°C in Aziziyah, Libya.

Due to the high temperatures and arid conditions of the Sahara Desert, the plant life in the Sahara Desert is sparse and includes only around 500 species. These consist mainly of drought and heat resistant varieties and those adapted to salty conditions where there is sufficient moisture. The harsh conditions found in the Sahara Desert have also played a role in the presence of animal life in the Sahara Desert. In the central and driest part of the desert there are around 70 different animal species, 20 of which are large mammals like the spotted hyena. Other mammals include the gerbil, sand fox and Cape hare. Reptiles like the sand viper and the monitor lizard are present in the Sahara as well.

It is believed that people have inhabited the Sahara Desert since 6000 BCE and earlier. Since then, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks and Europeans have been among the peoples in the area. Today the Sahara's population is around 4 million with the majority of the people living in Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania and Western Sahara. Most of the people living in the Sahara today do not live in cities; instead they are nomads who move from region to region throughout the desert. Because of this, there are many different nationalities and languages in the region but Arabic is most widely spoken. For those who do live in cities or villages on fertile oases, crops and the mining of minerals like iron ore (in Algeria and Mauritania) and copper (in Mauritania) are important industries that have allowed population centers to grow.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 8: LIFE IN THE FUTURE

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Tomorrow's World

Read the passage and do the task that follows

Aircraft capable of flying at ten times the speed of sound are being designed for the future. They will take off from an ordinary runway, climb through the atmosphere to the edge of their destination. One day in the 21st century, people will be landing in Tokyo just one hour after taking off from Heathrow Airport in London.

Most of our energy comes from coal, oil and gas. One day these fossil fuels will all be consumed. We should be careful now how we use them and make plans for using less. Our attitudes to energy in the next 20 years will affect the entire planet for centuries. Generating electricity from the wind is a good, clean source of energy to come, but an intrusion on the landscape to others. One critic described them as "like toilet brushes disfiguring the countryside."

Tropical forests are immensely rich. They may cover only six per cent of the earth's surface, but they support over two-thirds of the world's plant and animal species. Scientists believe that a quarter of a million plant species could be made extinct in our children's life time largely because of forest destruction. The forests are a vital source of medicinal plants and so by destroying forests, we may be destroying the drugs which could cure cancer and other serious diseases. In the time it takes you to do this exercise, four more species will have become extinct.

More than three-quarters of the world's fresh water is locked in the ice-caps of the Artic and Antarctica. A small amount of this pure water would be sufficient to transform the dry areas of the world into fertile land. Engineers think that it would be possible to transport an iceberg of up to 10 kilometres in length using a tug the size of a supertanker to pull it. The Sahara desert has the advantage of being close to the sea and could be irrigated using water from the iceberg without the expense of long-distance pipelines.

Pedestrians in the cities of the future could speed through the streets at up to 15 kilometres per hour just by standing still. A network of moving pavements could reduce travelling time and end rush-hour traffic jams forever. A Swiss company has invented a system of high speed moving pavements. Pedestrians will be able to step on and off them as easily as using an ordinary escalator.

Most people would be happy to find a way to stay younger longer and scientists have been working on experiments with hormonal treatments and chemicals to reduce the oxygen content of the blood. But the most promising method of retarding age is through diet. Research has shown that a diet containing all the essential ingredients but with the calorie intake reduced to only three-fifths the normal level could lead to a lifespan of two-fifths longer.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 7: ECONOMIC REFORMS

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Economic Reforms

Read the passage and do the task that follows

The July 13, 2000, signing of the Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) between the U.S. and Vietnam was a significant milestone for Vietnam's economy. The BTA provided for Normal Trade Relations (NTR) status of Vietnamese goods in the U.S. market. Access to the U.S. market will allow Vietnam to hasten its transformation into a manufacturing-based, export-oriented economy. It would also concomitantly attract foreign investment to Vietnam, not only from the U.S. but also from Europe, Asia, and other regions.

On November 7, 2006, Vietnam became WTO's 150th member, after 11 years of preparation, including 8 years of negotiation. Vietnam's access to WTO should provide an important boost to Vietnam's economy and should help to ensure the continuation of liberalizing reforms and create options for trade expansion. However, WTO accession also brings serious challenges, requiring Vietnam's economic sectors to open the door to increased foreign competition.

Although Vietnam's economy, which continues to expand at an annual rate in excess of 7 percent, is one of the fastest growing in the world, the economy is growing from an extremely low base, reflecting the crippling effect of the Second Indochina War (1954-75) and repressive economic measures introduced in its aftermath. Whether rapid economic growth is sustainable is open to debate, the government may not be able to follow through with plans to scale back trade restrictions and improving transparency are keys to gaining full membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) as hoped by mid-2006. The government plans to reform the state-owned sector by partially privatizing thousands of state-owned enterprises, including all five state-owned commercial banks.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 6: FUTURE JOBS

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The Pros and Cons of Freelancing

Read the passage and do the task that follows

If you've considered a career change, then you may also be planning on going it alone and freelancing. Freelance opportunities have rocketed in the past decade, with the Internet making remote working more viable than ever. Depending on the profession, freelancers can also work on a contractual basis on site. Whichever mode of freelancing you're thinking about, it's always a good idea to weigh up the pros and cons of freelancing to see whether you're suited to working in this capacity.

PRO: Flexible Working Hours

One extremely attractive advantage of working freelance is that often you will be able to choose what hours you work, particularly when working from home. Of course, this also drastically reduces or eliminates your time spent commuting! Often if you are working on a project, you will be given a deadline. This means that you can choose what hours you want to work.

If you're a night owl, then you can spend your day working on other projects, hobbies or simply enjoying the 'free time', with evenings spent working. Alternatively, if you wish to cram in lots of work into a 3-day week, it's your prerogative as long as you meet your deadline and deliver quality work.

However it is important that you are disciplined and motivated enough to work under your own steam. Leaving projects until the last minute can cause all sorts of problems, reduce the quality of the finished product and leave you feeling stressed and tired.

CON: Work is Not Always Guaranteed

One major consideration when going freelance is whether you'll be able to secure enough work to meet your financial needs. You might find that you have to build up a portfolio of clients, or if you're contracting there might be periods in between where you're searching for work.

If you're considering freelancing then it is a good idea to either take on some part-time work whilst you build your client base, or have some savings in place as a contingency for any quiet periods. You should also keep your ear to the floor with regard to recessions and economic slowdown, as these can hit freelancers and contractors badly.

PRO: Choosing Your Own Work

As an established freelancer you may have a steady stream of work coming in, and as a result are able to pick and choose which projects you take on, which projects you sub-contract out, as well as which projects you simply pass on. In turn this can also affect your working hours, and gives you control over the type of work you do. If you find you particularly enjoy one subject area, you may be lucky enough to earn enough from accepting only the projects that you enjoy. Likewise, if you enjoy working on a variety of projects, you may be able manage the diversity of your work.

CON: Taking Care of Your Accounts and Taxes

As a freelancer, unless you have your very own accountant, you'll have to take care of your own bookkeeping duties and tax returns. Whether you've set yourself up as a sole trader or limited company, you'll need to be scrupulous with your accounting, as you could be audited at any given time.

New freelancers must register as self-employed within around 3 months of beginning freelance work. If you put off registering, you may find that you incur a penalty fine for not doing so. You must also make sure that you keep on top of your tax and National Insurance payments. Tax returns can take time and can sometimes prove complicated, however, if your bookkeeping and accounting is orderly, it will be much less of a daunting task.

PRO/CON: You Are Your Own Boss

Being your own boss definitely has its plus points - for instance, if you choose to take a few days holiday, you don't have to check with anyone else. There's no set time to get into work, and there's no clock watching, waiting for 5pm to come. You reap the rewards and praise for your work, and don't have to share your profits with anyone else.

However, having no boss to report to or consult can also have its pitfalls. For one, you and you alone will be liable for your reputation and any problems that arise. Your reputation, once dented, may take a long time to recover if you've networked extensively. There will be no one to share the load when the going gets tough, and you may have to deal with problematic or angry clients on your own.

Nevertheless, these are all hypothetical scenarios, and the chances are that if you are dedicated, passionate, motivated and well organised, then you will be able to a make a success out of a career in freelancing.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 5: HIGHER EDUCATION

Reading

Higher Education in the USA

Read the passage and do the task that follows/do the tasks that follow

There is no national system of higher education in the USA. Basically American higher education developed its own pattern by the adaption of two traditions: the collegiate tradition of England and the university tradition of the continent.

In the USA there is no consistent distinction between the term "college" and "university". The general tendency, however, is to call a college a higher educational institution offering mainly courses of instruction leading to the Bachelor's degree; a university is a college or a group of colleges or departments under one control offering courses of instruction leading not only to the Bachelor's degree but also the Master's and the Doctor's degree. The term college is also sometimes loosely applied to institutions which are actually only secondary schools.

The American college, although it is the outgrowth of the English college of Oxford and Cambridge, has developed into an institution which has no counterpart in Europe. The college course of study, at first three years in duration, was soon extended to 4 years and the classes are uniformly known as the freshman, the sophomore, the junior and the senior.

The traditional degree which crowns the college course is that of Bachelor of Arts (B.A.). The studies ordinarily insisted on in case of candidates for this degree are Latin, Greek, mathematics, English, philosophy, political economy, history and at least one modern European language (French or German) and at least one natural science.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 4: SCHOOL EDUCATION SYSTEM

Reading

Education

Read the passage and do the task that follows

Is it any wonder that there are teacher shortages? Daily, the press carries reports of schools going on four-day weeks simply because they cannot recruit enough teachers. But why? There is no straightforward answer. For a start, fewer students are entering teacher-training courses when they leave school. But can you blame young people after the attack faced by the teaching profession in the UK over the last decade? The attack has been on several fronts. Government inspectors have been feeding the media a constant stream of negative information about the teaching establishments in this country. Teachers also come in for a lot of criticism from politicians. And the government wonders why there are problems in schools.

The government's obvious lack of respect for the teaching profession was recently revealed by one of the most powerful people in government when she referred to schools as 'bog standard comprehensives'. Hardly the sort of comment to inspire parents or careers advisers seeking to direct young people's future. Would you want to spend your working life in a dead-end profession? The government doesn't seem to want you to either.

On the administrative side, most teachers are weighed down by an increasing flow of bureaucracy. Cynicism would have me believe that this stops teachers from fomenting dissent as they are worn out by useless administrative exercises. Most teachers must then also be cynics!

Teacher-attacking has spread to youngsters in schools as the recent catalogue of physical attacks on teachers will testify. If grown-ups have no respect for the teaching profession, young people can hardly be expected to think any differently. The circle is then squared when competent teachers being driven out of the profession by the increased pressure and stress; fewer students are applying for teacher-training courses.

In the educational field, there is surprisingly constant tension between the educational theorists and government officials on the one hand, who would like to see teachers marching in unison to some greater Utopian abstraction and, on the other, practising teachers. Any experienced classroom practitioner knows that the series of initiatives on teaching and learning that successive governments have tried to foist on schools and colleges do not work.

Task

Fill the word or phrase in the summary

Is it surprising that there is a  of teachers? Schools do not have enough teachers, but what are the reasons for this? To begin with, fewer students are going into  courses after finishing schools. But this is not young people's fault. The  of teaching has been under constant attack over the last ten years. The government's lack of respect for the profession is . Moreover, on the administrative side, the flow of bureaucracy is . Even pupils in schools have no respect for those who teach them, as a series of assaults on teachers shows. The growing pressure and stress means that as well as fewer applications for teacher-training courses, teachers who have experience and are  are also being driven out.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 3: WAYS OF SOCIALISING

Reading

Speak English with Body Language

Read the passage and do the task that follows/do the tasks that follow

When we speak, we use much more than just words. We also use a kind of communication called "body language" or "non-verbal communication". Non-verbal communication not only includes how we move our body, but also hand gestures, facial expressions including eye contact, and how we use our voice. Psychologists estimate that between 60% and 80% of all of our communication with other people is non-verbal. We communicate a wide range of information non-verbally. We also show our feelings, attitudes, moods, hopes and wishes far better with non-verbal language than with words.

Not only is a large quantity of communication non-verbal in nature, but the quality is high as well. For example, if a person says something positive while his face looks negative, which are we more likely to believe? In most cases, we will believe the non-verbal facial expression. In the end, his words will not succeed in communicating his message. If we want to succeed in our everyday conversations, we really must learn to "speak" with our body well!

Let me begin by giving you some general advice. The main thing is to relax and be natural. Just allow your body language to naturally follow your words. If you say something positive, then your face, body and hands should show it too. If you are expressing a sad or worried feeling, then your face, body and hands should change with that feeling. As you think about it more and consider how you can use your body to communicate, you will become more and more natural.

More specifically, let's talk about hand gestures. Using our hands, we can emphasize our main points and let our listener know when we are changing topics. A dramatic movement of the hand or moving our hands wide apart can signal how important something is. To show very strong feeling we could clap our hands together loudly or make a fist and hit a desk. To show that we welcome someone, we can hold our hands out with the palms up, and maybe move them towards a chair to invite someone to sit next to us.

Facial expressions are a very common way that we use to communicate every day. When speaking English, it's generally good to smile at your listener, especially when he or she has made an interesting comment. Also nod your head up and down to show you are really interested. From time to time, you can add a sound of agreement, such as "Uh huh" or even just "mmmm", to show you are listening. Above all, it is important to maintain eye contact while listening. Sometimes it is okay to move your eyes away when you are speaking, because you do have to think about what you want to say. However the listener should almost always look at the speaker without moving the eyes away.

Besides all of the physical ways to communicate non-verbally, we have our voice. We use intonation, loudness and pitch to change our meaning. Combined with the words we use, our voice can be a very powerful way to express what we mean. A strong voice can communicate confidence while a quiet voice communicates intimacy or some secret message. A loud, high pitched voice can communicate nervousness or excitement, while a deep voice might mean we are tired or not enthusiastic.

Body language is one of the basic skills that all students need.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 2: CULTURAL DIVERSITY

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Wedding Custom

Read the passage and do the tasks that follow

Marriage is an ancient religious and legal practice celebrated around the world. Although the reasons that people marry are similar in many places, wedding customs vary from country to country.

In many countries, it is customary for the bride to wear a white dress as a symbol of purity. In traditional Japanese wedding ceremonies, the bride wears a white kimono. The tradition of wearing a special white dress only for the wedding ceremony started around 150 years ago. Before that, most women could not afford to buy a dress that they would only wear once. Now, bridal dresses can be bought in a variety of styles and fabrics, and many brides have their dress specially made.

In different countries, colors other than white are worn by the bride or used as part of the wedding ceremony. In certain Asian countries and in the Middle East, red and orange are considered symbols of joy and happiness. In Chinese cultures, wedding invitations are usually red and gold as these are colors symbolic of wealth and happiness. Wedding guests give gifts of money to the newlyweds in small red envelopes. Not all cultures, though, consider money a suitable gift. In many Western countries, especially the U.K, wedding guests give the bride and groom household items that they may need for their new home.

As part of many traditional wedding ceremonies, a bride wears a veil. Wearing a veil that covers the head and face is a tradition that is over 2,000 years old. Veils were originally worn as a sign of secrecy and modesty and could only be removed by the husband after the ceremony. Today, many brides wear a veil, but only for decoration. In some countries, a veil is placed between the bride and groom during the wedding ceremony so that they cannot see or touch each other until they are married.

In many cultures, couples exchange rings, usually made of gold or silver, during the marriage ceremony. The circular shape of the ring is symbolic of the couple’s eternal union. In Brazil, it is traditional to have the rings engraved, with the bride’s name on the groom’s ring, and vice versa. The wedding ring is usually worn on the third finger of the left or right hand, because it was once believed that a vein ran directly from this finger to the heart.

Flowers play an important role in most weddings. Roses are said to be the flowers of love, and because roses usually bloom in June, this has become the most popular month for weddings in many countries. Ivy is also used in wedding bouquets because in early Greek times, it was thought to be a sign of everlasting love. After the wedding ceremony, it is customary in many countries for the bride to throw her bouquet into a crowd of well wishers-usually her single female friends. It is said that the person who catches the bouquet will be the next to marry. In Turkey, when a woman gets married, her female friends write their names on the inside of the shoes the bride will wear on her wedding day. After the ceremony, if someone’s name has rubbed off and cannot be read, it is said that this person will be the next to marry.

Many wedding customs that originated in one part of the world have been incorporated into marriage ceremonies in other countries. Today, couples can choose from many of the world’s traditional customs to create their own special ceremony.

Nguồn: Internet

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BÀI 1: HOME LIFE

Reading

Care of the elderly - A family matter

Read the passage and do the task that follows

Many people wrongly believe that when people reach old age, their families place them in nursing homes. They are left there in the hands of strangers for the rest of their lives. Their grown children visit them only occasionally, but more often, they do not have any regular visitors. The truth is that this idea is an unfortunate myth; a fictitious story. In fact, family members provide over 80 percent of the care that elderly people need.

Because Americans are living longer than ever, more psychologists and social workers have begun to study care-giving to improve the care of the elderly. They have found that all caregivers share a common characteristic: All caregivers believe that they are the best persons for the job, for different reasons. One caregiver said that she had always been close to her mother. Another was the oldest child. Another was the youngest child. In other words, they all felt that they could do the job better than anyone else. Social workers interviewed caregivers to find out why they took on the responsibility of caring for an elderly, dependent relative. They discovered three basic reasons. Many caregivers believed that they had an obligation to help their relatives. Some stated that helping others made them feel more useful. Others hoped that by helping someone now, they would deserve care when they became old and dependent.

When people care for elderly relatives, they often do not use available community services, such as adult day care centers. If the caregivers are adult children, they are more likely to use such services, especially because they often have jobs and other responsibilities. In contrast, a spouse, usually the wife, is much less likely to use support services or to put the dependent person in a nursing home. Social workers discovered that the main reason for this difference was the fear of poverty. An ill, elderly person may live for years, and medical care and nursing homes are very expensive. An elderly couple's savings can disappear very quickly. The surviving spouse, usually the wife, can be left in poverty. As a result, she often tries to take care of her husband herself for as long as she can.

Researchers have found that caring for the elderly can be a very positive experience. The elderly appreciated the care and attention they received. They were affectionate and cooperative. However, even when care-giving is satisfying, it is hard work. Social workers and experts on aging offer caregivers and potential caregivers help when arranging for the care of an elderly relative. One consideration is to ask parents what they want before they become sick or dependent. Perhaps they prefer going into a nursing home and can select one in advance. On the other hand, they may want to live with their adult children. Caregivers must also learn to be assertive and ask for help from others, especially siblings. Brothers and sisters are often willing to help, but they do not know what to do.

We can expect to live longer lives than ever before in American history. Caring for the elderly and being taken care of can be a mutually satisfying experience for everyone involved.

Nguồn: Internet

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